HOW DO AUTOMATION and ROBOTS WORK?

To help us best deal with our environment, we have come to design, build and use more "capable and talented", "smart", "automated" tools. These enhanced tools complement and enrich our existence with more power and better decisions, adopting and executing our intentions in most effective ways. We call these tools automata and robots.

Robots and automata incorporate special devices that drive their behavior and energies more effectively, so as to improve and amplify the things we do. To design and build these smart and powerful tools, we use the tools and means that are already available, including simpler and perhaps older tools as well as other automata and robots. To work with robots we connect with and drive them either directly (direct controls), or indirectly, remotely, at a distance (remote controls).

Both direct and remote control of robots are normally designed in well defined steps called “programs,” requiring clear, logical assessment of situations and resources to implement actions. When we communicate our commands flowing from a remote distance, we say that the tools are "remote controlled". When tools are designed to sense, evaluate the environment independently, select and execute appropriate sequences of actions on their own, we call them "automated", "cybernetic" or “robotic” tools. Tools designed to assess situations and select actions through localized, independent sensing, decision-making and acting ressembling "intelligence," including sustaining sources of energy to drive and implement their behavior, are called autonomous.

Successful design and operation of autonomous (automated) tools and robots requires the best use of today's applicable knowledge and supporting basic technologies, such as mathematics, and areas of science and physics such as material sciences, mechanics, electricity and magnetism, hydraulics, computing and information technologies, ergonomics and cognitive sciences.

Material sciences, mechanics and ergonomics help us design and build better shaped, effective, capable, human-friendly, reliable and durable physical objects and assemblies. Hydraulics, together with electricity and magnetism provide strong support for the use of mechanical movement in machines by tightly controlling and distributing strong forces and movement throughout coordinated mechanisms (using physical sensors, hydraulic and electromagnetic activators, pumps, valves and motors).

At the present time, electricity, magnetism and pressurized fluids (liquids/hydraulics or air/pneumatics) have become most common choices to provide strong energy and information signals using either remote, wire/physically-connected or independent (autonomous), on-board stored energy and information sources to power and control our tools and machines. Tools and machines can be made to operate stronger on their own by providing them with energy stored in and released by supplied fuels, compressed fluids, mechanical windings, capable batteries, solar panels, etc. Tools and machines can be made more "talented" and capable for action when we control them through properly stated instructions or commands, given to them in the form of specially designed, enabled and perhaps coded physical objects (e.g. "things that make us smart", music-box punched tapes) or comprehensive sequences of electrical representations, coded as symbols and signals. These symbols and signals, called information, are transmitted to the tool/machine/robot and possibly held within them for their deferred interpretation and execution at appropriate times and perhaps unsupervised, under predefined conditions (referred to as "control programs" in Information technology). To "touch and feel" the environment under which they operate, automated tools and machines use input devices (called sensors). To interpret the input and assess the situation at hand, as well as to determine possible choice of behavior or actions necessary, the machines would use some information processing mechanism (mimicking the brain of living organisms). To execute and perform the physical actions desired, machines and robots use appropriate output devices, including physical actuators, and electro-mechanical servomechanisms (or "servos").

Overall, automata and robots are imagined and built best when conceptualized, designed and constructed as functional systems. The science of design and construction of functional systems is called systems engineering - (see BASIC SYSTEMS ENGINEERING DIAGRAM below).

The science dedicated to providing people and machines with desired physical, cognitive and decision/control abilities and capacities for working, surviving and adapting to their environment is called cognitive science. For a human, In the science of automation, machines and robots are designed and built to receive, hold information, execute with intelligence and evaluate the result of executing our instructions, on their own, or assisted as seen necessary by given criteria or independently sensed/acquired information, in what are called autonomous controls. Automata and robots receive, hold and execute designed commands, in logical order and guided by predefined conditions detected or "sensed" externally (information INPUT) or internally, by their available devices (sensors and processors), to produce effective (desired effects), accurate (exact measure), precise (reliable, trustworthy), and timely behaviors. The mechanical or other energy required by automata and robots to operate can be supplied (energy INPUT) by either external (e.g. cables, tubes or free sunlight) or internal sources of energy (on-board combustion engines, batteries, energy cells) , which can be fed continuously with timely (periodically, or fast- live), accurate and reliable environmental information from sensors. Automata would then be capable of accessing and processing the available information (INFORMATION PROCESSING) make operational decisions and apply energy to activate its physical actuators (energy OUTPUT) to modify the environment, and as necessary, support external communication abilities (information OUTPUT), just like real biological systems (see FALCON AS A BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM image below). Automated tools should be able to evaluate and appropriately readapt their ongoing behavior and actions on their own.

Next we will see how various technologies support the creation of better, smarter tools, robotic machines, and automata.

Function analysis (Situation, problem, system and subsystem analysis). Tool and machine solutions:

According to the Oxford Dictionary, a Tool is "a device or implement, . . . . . used to carry out a particular function". Likewise, a Machine is "an apparatus using or applying mechanical power and having several parts, each with a definite function and together performing a particular task". It seems clear, however that in general, more elaborate artifacts and machines are all objects we can consider tools.

In order to design and create the most effective and efficient tools aiming to carry out particular functions or performing particular tasks, addressing questions or satisfying needs, a good awareness and understanding is required of the problems and consequences of as many alternative approaches and solutions as possible. To do this, a rational approach, called "the scientific method" has been developed in science. A description of the steps and a link to and interactive activity illustrating the sequential nature of the method are shown below.

Click this link: The steps of the scientific method

The steps of the scientific method are logical, rational steps and activities that support reliable behaviors and "smart problem solving" ("How to Solve it", George Polya, 1945). The result of following smart problem solving procedures is that problems would be better understood, and therefore, imagining, designing and constructing more effective solutions and appropriate tools.

Through history, tools developed through generations from simpler mechanical objects supporting the direct application of our manual force, body dexterity or craftsmanship, and into more complex and effective devices, machines, and engines to help us convert energy into mechanical forces or energy to use them in more powerful forms, and up to the ones we can see today in our sophisticated industrial, commercial, financial, construction, mining, agricultural, and commercial infrastructures. Some of the more elaborate tools and complex devices include those that support themselves the design and implementation of the next generation of complex and powerful new tools we see adding every day (e.g. analysis and research computers, "CAD-CAM, and newer, smarter, more powerful machine tools").

In the beginning: SIMPLER TOOLS >

> into today's and tomorrow’s COMPLEX TOOLS

As mentioned previously, when designing and building tools and robots, it is helpful to conceptualize them as systems or part of systems, perhaps consisting of aggregates of distinct, more specialized subsystems, all modeled in the INPUT-PROCESSING-OUTPUT model form, which is parallel to the PERCEIVING-IMAGINING-TRANSFROMING or UNDERSTANDING-PREDICTING-TRANSFORMING cycle of human interaction with the real-world, as described in the image shown below.

For electrical and information technology tools, the basic INPUT: elements are commonly referred to as information sensing (input sensors), PROCESS/STORAGE: information processing/analysis, storage (Computers and controllers) and OUTPUT: actuator devices. Electronic systems deal with information by encoding (representing) it in convenient Analog or Digital ) forms.

Input - It includes the supply of materials and/or energy to a machine or robot to enable it to operate. This includes electricity, fuels and information signals that are needed to move, indicate environmental conditions, and control commands telling it what to do. Control commands and environmental measurements are typically encoded and communicated as electrical signals and symbols obtained through sensors and transducers (converters into electricity), and coded into analog or digital forms . Transducers and sensors typically consist of some mechanical, electrical, magnetic, chemical, or optical device that senses and detects changes as a result of the state of a physical quality of interest in the environment. Transducers are appropriate physical elements that convert the physical magnitude sensed into an electrical magnitude or code. Transducers typically communicate and inform their devices, machines, or systems of magnitude or measurement of their environment.

The input also would include information regarding our intentions for the tool, in the form of instructions (control commands) or physical settings to rule its behavior. When the instructions for operation are provided from a distance, we call the machine "remote controlled". If the instructions are provided previously and loaded in the machine for execution in an independent, autonomous basis at appropriate times, we call them "autonomous machines".

Processing/analysis and storage of information - elements that allow for the staging (buffering) and retention (storage) of information (data), both from sensors, as of control command lists (programs). This component includes also the interpretation and execution of control commands, based on rules and protocols established by its processing in programs.

Output- Includes the activation of physical devices (actuators) intended to provide actions that modify the physical environment as determined for the machine and, as needed, supply streams of data, to inform the operators of the machine about conditions or information of interest.

Although through history the components of human-made (artificial) systems have remained quite simple and relied mostly on mechanical, physical components, at the present, we are creating more elaborate "intelligent") tools with more complex capabilities for Input, Processing/storage and Output of information and physical actions. All this due mostly to most effective forms of media, such as electrical and/or electromagnetic components with a high ability and convenience to carry and manage energy and information. Through these media, energy and information can be generated, converted, coded, transported and applied in extremely fast and efficient forms. ANALOG (imitative, as an analogy) and DIGITAL (numbers/digits symbolized). Information signals and processing are typically hosted in electrical and magnetic media. How is this done?

Electrical and electromagnetic quantities of energy are encoded (represented by symbols) to convey numeric, visual, auditory and tactile (physical movement) information. Numbers are helpful to support quantitative assessment (MEASUREMENTS) of the environment (physical size, sounds, image, pressure, etc.) and other patterns in the operating environment, COMMANDS for ANALYTICAL or COMPUTATIONAL ACTIONS, or specific CONTROL or OUTPUT ACTIONS (actuator device, subsystem or system activation) in automata and robots?

System Engineering and Design

An interdisciplinary (combined disciplines) approach to engineering systems is inherently complex since behavior of and interaction among system components is not always trivial, immediately defined or understood. Defining and characterizing such systems, component (sub)systems and the interactions among them is one of the goals of systems engineering. In doing so, there will be gaps between informal requirements from users, operators, productive organizations, and the technical specifications for the design, construction and application of tools that should be successfully bridged.

As the NASA (National Aerospace Science Agency) states it:
"Systems engineering is a methodical, disciplined approach for the design, realization, technical management, operations, and retirement of a system. A system is a construct or collection of different elements that together produce results not obtainable by the elements alone. Systems engineering seeks a safe and balanced design in the face of opposing interests and multiple, sometimes conflicting constraints. "NASA Systems Engineering Handbook, 2007, p.3.

Prototyping
A “prototype” is a model used to pattern something for exploration, usually at a convenient size and/or economic scale. The process of prototyping is aimed to the discovery of conditions and options related to complex problems, and it involves the following "prototyping steps":

1. Identification of basic requirements: Determine basic requirements including the input and output information desired. Details, such as security, can typically be ignored.

2. Development of an Initial Prototype: Initial prototypes are developed to focus mainly on user needs. End-users examine the prototype and provide feedback on additions or changes.

3. Revision and Enhancement of the Prototype: Using the feedback both the specifications and the prototype can be improved. Negotiation about what is within the scope of the product may be necessary. If changes are introduced then a repeat of steps #2 and #3 may be needed.

Prototyping – rapid
Rapid prototyping involves the accelerated, efficient development of designs through multiple iterations involving prototypes in a basic, three-step process:

1. Prototype
   Convert the users’ description of the solution into mock-ups, factoring in user experience standards and best practices.

2. Review
   Share the prototype with users and evaluate whether it meets their needs and expectations.

3. Refine
   Based on feedback, identify areas that need to be refined or further defined and clarified.

OTHER SYSTEM ENGINEERING-RELATED CONCEPTS (from the "NASA Systems Engineering Handbook,” 2007 )

INPUT : ENERGY AND INFORMATION DELIVERED TO THE TOOL FROM THE ENVIRONMENT TO ENABLE IT TO PERFORM CAPABLE MACHINE OPERATIONS

PHYSICAL CONFIGURATION, MATERIAL SHAPES AND FUNCTIONALITIES GIVEN BY DESIGN FOLLOWING THE MOST EFFECTIVE DESIGN AND OPERATION TECHNOLOGIES AND THE BEST USE OF CURRENT KNOWLEDGE OF SUBJECTS SUCH AS PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, MATERIALS SCIENCE, BIOLOGY AND OTHER RELEVANT KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERIENCE

ENERGY, ENERGY SUPPLIES FOR THE TOOL PROVIDED BY EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL SOURCES AND STORAGE OF SUBSTANCE FOR THE TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY IN SUPPORT OF ITS MORE ENERGY DEMANDING OPERATIONS

(1) Physical configuration - Assemblies, subassemblies and individual parts: Strong, efficiently purposeful, powerful and durable (Mechanical, Chemical, Electrical, electronics, and Hydraulics Engineering......)

Materials Strength and endurance- Mechanical, chemical and biological engineering

Power - Electrical, electromagnetic and electrochemical power engineering, Hydraulics of compressible and non-compressible fluids

(2) Accurate, effective, precise, reliable, trustworthy and accurate (exact measure) behavior : (Electronics, Telecommunications, Information Technologies and Computer Engineering)

INFORMATION: GENERAL, LONG-AND-SHORT-TERM HANDLING AND COMMUNICATION OF SIGNALS, COMMANDS AND THE PROGRAMS REQUIRED BY THE PROCESSING IN AUTOMATED MACHINE OPERATIONS

OUTPUT : DELIVERED FROM THE TOOL TO THE ENVIRONMENT AS A RESULT OF MACHINE OPERATIONS

ENERGY, CONSISTING OF PHYSICAL MOVEMENTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES, AS REQUIRED FROM THE TOOL

INFORMATION: MACHINE SENSED AND PROCESSED DATA PROVIDED TO EXTERNAL RECIPIENTS